Historical Meteorological Records in Japan in relation to Rangaku (蘭学) and East Asian History of Science Context
Togo Tsukahara, 　Kobe University

In this paper, I will discuss the history of meteorology in the 18th and 19th century Japan, and also examine the wider context of it in two respects, that meteorology in East Asian viewpoints, and also European Colonial perspective. Through the historical analysis and contextualization of those meteorological and climatorogical research in Japan, it is intended to correlate the Western history meteorology and Japan's adaptation of meteorology. Intellectual history concerning the conceptual change of understanding meteorological phenomena in Japan and East Asian cultures, and also global networking of scientific observation in the framework of the Dutch colonial scientific history will also outlined.
My research in history of meteorology in East Asia is consisted of two aspects.
(1) First aspect is to look for and to reconstruct the meteorological data from Edo period Japan, in order to prepare them for the further scientific examination by the contemporary historical meteorologists and climatologists.　Namely, I am searching the written records concerning weather in history, particularly about instrumentally observed series of them. For instance, the 1820s observations in Nagasaki and Tokyo, carried out by a German medical doctor then employed by the Dutch post at Deshima, Ph. F. von Siebold (1796-1866: stay in Japan 1823-1830), have turned out to be one of the most important contributions from Edo period for historical climatologists both in Japan and the Netherlands. The examination necessary for those is whether these data is scientifically reliable or not. For that, as a historian, I am working in cooperation with professional scientists concerning global warming issues on the evaluation of these historical materials.
(2) Second aspect is to examine historical research on the scientific and cultural exchange between the Netherlands and Japan. It is my intention to clarify when and who made those observations, and how those were carried out, in where, and for what purpose. Since most of meteorological instruments were brought into Japan though the Dutch trade post of Deshima in the period, I am carrying out my research with special reference to the exchange between Japan and the Netherlands: mainly archief in Algemene Rijksarchief (National Archief of the Netherlands) and other institutions. I will outline Japanese earlier encounter to the Western meteorology.

I. Pre-1870 record : Von Siebold Data, Osaka data and Asakusa data

With regard to the global warming, the more attention is paid to review historical records of weather in order to reconstruct long term climate change. Meteorologists and climatologists endeavored to plot such a time-temperature diagram in longer time perspective. In order to re-construct such time-temperature diagram, particularly for the period before the data by scientific instruments available, a varietie of scientific technique is employed: the measurement of the year-rings of trees and analysis of ice layers of the Antarctica, or permanent glacier, or the thickness of organic sediments of the bottom of lakes, are some of those to provide the estimated data. Instrumentally observed data is, in general, believed to provide more reliable data, after the systematic networking of meteorological observations. Until recently, 1872 was thought to be the historical threshhold in the Japanese case. It was a part of Meiji modernization after 1868 when scientific instrumental observation has started, and it was the Hakodate meteorological station, where the first systematic, and scientifically reliable, observation was started in that year. The date from Hakodate is continuous to the present. Hakodate observation began three years earlier than that in Tokyo in 1875.
So far, there were a few research carried out by us, and we have found several useful records in order to reconstruct pre-1872 climate. As I mentioned, there is a von Siebold date, which I have for the first time come across in 1988 in Bochum, then West Germany. This is consisted of a series of meteorological record of the instrumental observations of the 1820s in Nagasaki and Edo (Tokyo). These observation were considered to have been practiced by medical doctor at Deshima, Ph. F. von Siebold and his assistant Heinrich Burger. A part of this observation records, particularly that taken in Edo, are considered to be made by their Japanese collaborators. Yet, no identification is made concerning this, but at least, then the Dutch researchers' mobility was very limited due to Shoguanal governmental restriction, it was thought to be carried out by the Japanese collaborator.
In 1997, I had an opportunity to do research on these materials and degitalize them, and further, to deal with these data statistically. Results of these digitalization has successfully attracted professional scientists' interests, and finally this data has got through further scientific examination thanks to my research counter part, Professor Takeshi Mikami of Tokyo Metropolitan University. After my primary data digitization, more exact calculations and statistical examination by expertise were made by the collaboration of Prof. Takeshi Mikami, and also with Dr. Gunter Konnen from the Royal Dutch Institute of Meteorology, KNMI, de Bilt. Mikami and Konnen were then also working on other data from Nagasaki, including Kok Blomhoff's series of observation. They applied a variety of mathematical technique of data homogenization, corrections and adjustments, and finally we come to have some fruitful results. All in all, von Siebold data was decided to be scientifically useful in order to discuss global climate change. Merits of Japanese pre-1872 date are both on time-scale and on space-scale, namely historical and geographical, as follows.
1 Verify the Estimated date to more exact Observed date, and extending time scale from 1870s to 1810s, namely 130 years from now to 190 years from now. 60 year is almost 50% more, so we are able to estimate more reliable extrapolation
2 East Asia is one of the "empty spots" in the examination of global historical climatology, but the examination of von Siebold's data of Japanese historical meteorology has got such a successful results to fulfill geographical space.

With those results, I have been attempting, for last few years, more systematic research on meteorological records in 18th and 19th century Japan. [fig. *] At this moment, some more records of both instrumental and non-instrumental observations were found. Among them, the most systematic ones are the following two series :
(1) Tokyo documents, kept at the public documentation office of the National Diet Library,
covers 17 years record of temperature and atomospheric pressure. These were observed and recorded Japanese astronomers at Astronomical and Calender-making Bureau in Asakusa, Edo.
This observation was carried out from the viewpoint of astronomical ovservation, in order to decide the thickness of the atmospheric sphere which causes different degrees of fraction of star light.
(2) Osaka documents, kept at special collection of Hazama archief in the Osaka Municipal Museum, covers about 5 years observation of weather, temperature and atomospheric pressure. This is taken by the Hazama family members, one of prosperous merchant family, and known as amateur scientists. Two of them have been once employed by Edo Astronomic Calender-making Bureau. Their observation was also carried out in relation to astronomical correction.

They are believed to give valuable data to the further scientific examination, and we are now in process of digitization and statistical treatment. Works concerning this are technical and historical, and also human relationship around this observations is interesting matter of further historical research. At this moment, digitization is in progress and almost completed, and our computers and colleague scientists are working hard in their parts.

II Japanese history of Meteorology: Pre-1810

About pre-1810 meteorology in Japan, there are some more series of earlier observation reported recently. I also have found one record that Stanford Ruffles sent barometer and thermometer to Japan, when he was the Governer General of the Dutch East Indies, when the Netherlands were occupied by the French.　Gaston Demaree, a researcher at the Royal Meteorological Institute of Belgium, repoted in 2000 that there were even earlier records by Thunberg. It was after Thunberg towards the end of the 18th Century, and around the period of Titsingh, Romberg and Chasse as "Opperhoofd (Head Master)" in Deshima, references to temperature appeared occasionally, with extreme heat or cold in particular, in the "Dagregister (Diary)". Thanks to the advice given by Leiden Historian Cynthia Vialle, I am working on making these reference into a list. Although there is no specific reference on how and when the thermometer was brought to Deshima, nor by whom und under what condition, we can estimate that it was this period that thermometer was brought to Deshima from the fact that there are several fragmental and sporadic reference to thermometer and barometer occurred in this period. Neither have I come across any specific reference to thermometer found in the kinds of documents "Inventaris van Geoderen (Inventaries of Goods)", or "Notarieele Acta (Document by Notary)", which the inventory lists exchanged between "Opperhoofd", which is thought to include all the publilc belongings. According to Vialle, if the specific thing is not included in this list, but discussed in the "Dagregister" or other records, those things are thought to be personal belongings. So far, we can assume, that thermometer, as well as barometer, were not a part of furniture, nor public belongings of Dutch Factory of Deshima, in this period. We need more systematic and longer term survey in the "Dagregister" for the further discussion.
By the Japanese researchers, no systematic observation was known earlier than Asakusa records, but frequent and sporadic references to thermometer are known in Japanese history. Some of them are even dating back to somehow very early times, as early as 1690's reference by Egbert Kaempfer of 1660. Kaempfer's reference to thermometer in 1690 was as follows: he was saying that the Kyoto court officials had shown him the thermometer given to them by the Dutch delegates thirty years before that time, namely around 1660s. This is needed to have more review. So far, no reference other than Kaempfer's own diary is found. Since that is the period of "Florentine Thermometer", which was even rare and unstable instrument even in Europe, and rather doubtful that such a rare instrument reached to Japan. This might have been something like "Thermoscope", or air thermometer, "Weather glass" or "Thunder glass", or something like a Drebbel's "wonder machine", working in accordance with the change of temperature but with less stable nor no gradings on it. We need further research on this.
About the historical situations for these references to meteorological instruments, and meteorological observations, we have to answer properly to the questions of who and when the first and following thermometers and barometers were brought, and how many of them were brought, into Japan, and who was the first one to observe meteorological phenomena quantifically. What we need now is more critical examination on historical materials. According to MacLean, the first meteorological instrument brought to Japan was, most probably, the "Weerglas"(Weather Glass), the barometer in 1720, as gifted to Shogun Yoshimune. In addition to MacLean, it is revealed from the archief of 1719, in the list of "Eischen" from the Japanese merchants to the Dutch traders, that this is not the simple gift, but a year before this "Geschenk", this is demanded by the Japanese side. The first thermometer is argued to be brought in 1794 by MacLean, but obviously, the Japanese have known thermometer before 1794, because there is already an Eisen from the Japanese in 1768.

In the Japanese side, there are a numbers of fragmental reference to thermometers and barometers, and other meteorological instruments. Most of the earlier records are made out of curiousity, all things from "the West" were treated as if those were "Wonder Machines". European Scientific Instruments were, for the Japanese, the ultimate objects of "Occidentalism", opposite to Edward Said's "Orientalism". There are a numbers of descriptions on meteorological instruments since the latter half of the eighteenth century Japan. But so far a very little number of serious research from the viewpoint of history of science was done on this topic. The problem is, that some of the records were pretty dubious, and only depending on hear-say, and there are some inconsistency among them. Most of them were found in the descriptions among objects of curiousity from the Netherlands. Seeing these miscellenaeous works in Japan, such as one by Hiraga Gennai's work "On Thermometer"(1768), and Miura Baien's travel diary to Nagasaki (1778), thermometer is known among Japanese scientists and official translators as earlier than the 1760s. They were, however, treated as curious objects, and not treated in the proper scientific way yet. Neither the systematic observation, nor series of observation was attempted.For instance, such as the one by Shiba Kokan was rather uncertain in scientific contents, as is seen in his misunderstanding of Keplar and Copernicus. He was certainly a man of culture, but not at all a man of exact science.
Ttere is a booklet of thermometer published in 1768 by Hiraga Gennnai, in which he explained how he made his own thermometer by himself. Hiraga's description was sloppy and not scientific at all. In this booklet, he claimed that he made thermometer by himself, and he proudly showed off that, he had completely understood its structure and function, suddenly after he has taken a look at it when Yoshio Kogyu brought the one in Edo. His claim is, however, doubtful from historical examination, because any essential things concerning scientific function of measuring temperature, such as the kind and quality of the liquid in it, nor the grading of temperature, were not mentioned at all. Moreover, any standard reference points of temperature, such as freezing nor boiling, were not stated. Unlike his electronics device, not any substantial evidence of thermometer is remaining, thus whether he has actually made any thermometer by himself or not is unclear. It was as dubious as other works of his. Although Hiraga's arguments is not suppoted, one thing is clear: that the Japanese have acquainted with thermometer earlier than the 1768.
It should also be noted that between 1750-1850, there is a frequent publication of meteorological predictions by Yin-Yang theory. It is thought to be a reflection of social uncertainty of unstable weather which became a cause of famine.

III. Outline of the Japanese history of meteorology: Transition from curiousity to science, then practical use.

It was between the 1800s and the 1820s, when more serious scientifric works appeared. Change in the Japanese history of science, from the first stage of "Curiousity", "Objective Occidentalism", to the second stage of "Translation of Scientific Concepts" and "Scientific Inquiry", then to the third stage of "Application" and "Practicality". In this first few decades of early nineteenth century, translations from Dutch to Japanese, on meteorological instruments, particularly on thermometer, appeared and published by the Japanese "Dutch Scholars: Rangakusha". Baba's work on "Senki To Yakusetsu"(1810) was one of the few which is known its original Dutch work so far, and it was made from Dutch Encyclopedia by Chomel or Buys. In this period, Stanford Raffles send one thermometer and one barometer to Japan in 1814 according to request, and a Deshima Opperhoofd, Overmeer Fisscher reportedly used barometer in order to measure the hight of mountain in Japan. It is now examined how thermometers were used in Japan, and also how they were described in other Dutch scientific works read by the Japanese scholars. In the process of application, translation and adaptation, a variety of different words and concepts were coined in this period, in order to understand, and to express Dutch scientific terms. So a word for Thermometer for instance, by Hirose(1808) it is "Kandan-kei"(meter of cold and hot), Aochi(1825) "Ken-on ki"(apparatus to examine warmth), and so on. Also measurement of human body temperature is also described by Tsuboi Shindo(1826), with reference to Boerhaave, and also by the von Siebold's disciple Takano Choei (ca.1820s, published annonymus in 1834-37). By the 1830s, by Fahrenheit thermometer, measurements of temperature in various chemical reactions were described in detail by Udagawa Yoan, the prominent chemist and botanist in the Edo period. It was also Udagawa Yoan, who understood the barometric measurement of heights (hypsometry) and lower boiling points according to height.

It is reported that, in 1842, Nihon Matsu district of Fukushima Prefecture (about 150 km North of Tokyo), the application of thermometer in silk cultivation started. Local medical Doctor Inazawa Soan, who is said to have studied under von Siebold, is reportedly applied thermometer for his medical practice there, and also he had invented the method of taking temperature in silk worm cultivation, in order to stabilize the room temperature to grow silk warms steadily, and this had been resulted in a huge success. After these success, the application of thermometer in silk worm cultivation became widely spread, and thermometer is nick-named as "San To Kei: (Economic) Success (in cultivation of) Silkworm Meter". This has a very important consequence: Silk became a staple export from Japan after Meiji restration in 1868, particularly from Northern and montaineous part of Japan.

For about analysis of its impact on the Japan's Intellectual history, we can examine this issue through some possible schemes, but I just omit this discussion due to space. With regard to the limited time and space, I just point out that there are some correlation of Wetern history of meteorology and introduction of that to Japan.
1. Interesting things are the combination of Dutch socio-academic environment and their oversea's involvement resulted in bringing those sciences to Japan.
2. Internal development of meteorology of those frameworks should be examined more closely, but Japan's 1750-1850 can rightly regarded as the adaptations of such characterized historical key-words as instrumentalization, Kuhnian Baconian Science and Canon's Humboldtian sciences in Japan.

Concluding Remarks

In relation to the wider context of the East Asian Historians of Science, I have recently come to be aquainted with several scientists at Korean Meteorological Observatory who are interested in historical issues. It is well known that there were records of rain fall by the rain gauge in Korea in Lee dyanasty sicne 15th century. Unfortunately, Japanese invasion in Korea interrupted their observation, and historical material were lost or destroyed, and some were even confiscated, by the Japanaese and therefore more sufficient historical research is expected. I am glad to report that Korean Colleague, Dr. Chun Youngsin in particular, and us Japanese historians of science, are now in contact to carry out meteorological historical research together. Also, despite political turmoil, a renouned North Korean historian of science, Professor Im Jonhyok, are now all willing to carry out cooperation of the examination of Yuji Wada (Former Director of Japanese Imperial Meteorological Observatory in Korean) and Sennosuke Tamura's (historian of science and North Korean simpatizer) material of Korean history of meteorology.
Also exchange between Jesuits and the Chinese are well versed topic in our profession. Astronomy and calender making are the highlights, and the scientific instruments to observe heavenly phenomena are the momuments of The East-West exchange without any doubt. No less, that mathematics and various exact sciences by the Jesuits are discussed and examined from different deep angles. Yet about meteorology, and meteorological instruments, we know less. However, Belgium meteorologist Gaston Demaree recently informed me privately that he found the letters and some historical evidences of the Belgium born Jesuit, Verbiest, has made thermometer by himself and said to have carried out meteorological observations. As professional meteorologist, Gaston Demaree is now examining the reliability of the data, whather they corresponding to the other estimated data, and also recently known periodical-annual phenomena of "el-nino" and south hemisphare ossiliation index.

By all means, East Asian history of meteorology is interesting topic, and it is sure that this is having more attention because of the growing concern of the global warming issues. Historians of sciences are expected to contribute to the research related to those global environmental concerns. This is a good occasion to practice a bit of our academic politics, insisting that we are not the inhbitant of ivory towers, and I think this is a good opportunity to claim the longer term merits of exercising history of science in the midst of neo-liberal discourse to try to smash all disciplines of the humanities.

This research would contribute to the discussion of global warming issues, by means of providing instrumentally observed data from the 18th and 19th century Japan. Through this research, I would like to show the fact that this research has so far provided one example of contemporary use of historical materials, found in the academic discipline of the history of science. My intention is to claim the merit of history of science, not only in the ivory tower academic world, but also in contemporary issues.
I hope have kind and professional advices and examinations from my colleague who kindly listened to my talk here.

(end)

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